Historical Background: U.S. Expansion and Native American Resistance
The late 19th century in the United States was a period marked by aggressive westward expansion and the consequential displacement of Native American tribes. Manifest Destiny, the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent, fueled this expansionist drive. This often led to conflict and resistance from the indigenous populations whose lands were being encroached upon. Among the most resistant groups were the Lakota Sioux, who played a significant role in opposing U.S. territorial ambitions.
One of the pivotal agreements during this era was the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. This treaty was intended to bring peace between the U.S. government and the Sioux by establishing the Great Sioux Reservation, which included the Black Hills, a region sacred to the Sioux. However, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills in the mid-1870s led to an influx of miners and settlers, violating the treaty and escalating tensions between the Sioux and the U.S. government. Over time, the land designated for the Sioux was systematically reduced through various legislative and administrative actions.
The 1887 General Allotment Act, also known as the Dawes Act, further exacerbated the situation. This Act aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by dividing communal tribal land into individual allotments for Native American families, with the surplus land sold to non-Native settlers. This policy drastically decreased the land held by the Sioux and other tribes, undermining their traditional way of life and sovereignty.
On the reservations, conditions were harsh and deteriorated over time. Federal agents pushed for the adoption of farming and livestock raising, demanding a shift from the communal and nomadic lifestyle traditionally held by the Sioux. However, the transition was difficult, and many Sioux became dependent on government rations, which were often inadequate and irregular. This dependency created further strain and discontent among the Sioux, setting the stage for the tragic events that would culminate at Wounded Knee.
The Ghost Dance Movement and Rising Tensions
The Ghost Dance movement was a significant religious revival among Native American tribes, particularly the Lakota, in the late 19th century. Originating from the visions of the Paiute prophet Wovoka, the Ghost Dance promised a return to ancestral ways and the removal of white settlers from their lands. According to Wovoka, adherence to the dance and its rituals would lead to a renewal of the earth, restoring peace and harmony. This message resonated deeply with the Lakota, who were experiencing profound cultural and economic dislocation due to U.S. expansion and imposed policies.
Wovoka’s prophecy provided a glimmer of hope amidst the despair that permeated Lakota communities. As the movement gained momentum, the U.S. government became increasingly alarmed by the Ghost Dance’s growing influence. The U.S. Army perceived the dance not merely as a spiritual practice but as a potential catalyst for an armed uprising. This misunderstanding led to heightened tensions between the Lakota and U.S. authorities.
The situation escalated dramatically with the attempted arrest of the influential Lakota leader Sitting Bull on December 15, 1890. Believing that Sitting Bull’s support was crucial to the spread of the Ghost Dance, the U.S. government sought to detain him. The ensuing confrontation resulted in the death of Sitting Bull and nine others. This tragic event further exacerbated the fear and anxiety among the Lakota, who felt increasingly threatened by the oppressive measures of the U.S. government.
In the wake of Sitting Bull’s death, many Lakota sought refuge and banded together, fearing imminent attacks. The congregation of these groups was perceived by the U.S. Army as a preparatory step for armed resistance. This misinterpretation led to the deployment of additional military forces to quell the supposed rebellion, setting the stage for one of the most tragic events in Native American history—the Wounded Knee Massacre.
The Wounded Knee Massacre: December 29, 1890
On December 28, 1890, Colonel James W. Forsyth and the 7th Cavalry arrived at a Miniconjou camp near Wounded Knee Creek, marking the beginning of a tragic series of events. The Lakota Sioux, led by Chief Big Foot, were in a vulnerable state, having surrendered and encamped under the watchful eyes of the U.S. Army. The following day, tensions rapidly escalated as soldiers attempted to disarm the Lakota, culminating in the infamous Wounded Knee Massacre.
In the early morning hours of December 29, the soldiers surrounded the camp and ordered the Lakota to surrender their weapons. A sense of unease permeated the air as the disarmament process began. Accounts vary, but it is widely believed that a scuffle broke out when a deaf Lakota man, Black Coyote, refused to give up his rifle. The tension reached a boiling point, and a shot was fired—whether accidental or intentional is still debated. This single shot triggered a chaotic and deadly assault.
The U.S. Army, armed with Hotchkiss guns, began firing indiscriminately at the Lakota. The powerful artillery, capable of rapid fire, wreaked havoc on the encampment. Within minutes, the tranquil landscape of Wounded Knee Creek was transformed into a scene of devastation. Over 250 Lakota, including women and children, were killed. Many of the victims were unarmed and attempting to flee. The soldiers’ relentless barrage left no room for escape or mercy.
Eyewitness accounts from both sides paint a harrowing picture of the massacre. Survivors among the Lakota described the horror of seeing their loved ones gunned down, the screams of the wounded, and the bitter cold that added to their suffering. On the other hand, some U.S. soldiers later expressed regret and dismay at the brutal actions they were compelled to carry out. The massacre at Wounded Knee symbolized the culmination of years of suffering and displacement endured by the Native American tribes.
The tragic events of December 29, 1890, at Wounded Knee Creek remain etched in history as a stark reminder of the injustices faced by the Native American people. The massacre not only marked the end of the Indian Wars but also signified a devastating chapter in the broader narrative of Native American genocide.
Legacy and Aftermath: The Impact of the Wounded Knee Massacre
The Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890 stands as a grim milestone in the history of Native American and U.S. relations. Marking the final major armed conflict between the U.S. government and the Plains Indians, the massacre effectively symbolized the end of significant Native American resistance in the region. The massacre underscored the unrelenting oppression and systematic violations of Native American rights and sovereignty that were a persistent feature of U.S. expansion policies. The brutal event at Wounded Knee Creek was not merely an isolated incident; it was emblematic of a broader strategy aimed at the suppression of Native American autonomy.
Seventy-three years later, in 1973, Wounded Knee once again became a focal point of Native American resistance. Members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) occupied the site to protest ongoing civil rights violations and the U.S. government’s failure to honor treaties with Native American tribes. The occupation brought national attention to the continuous struggles faced by Native American communities, highlighting issues such as poverty, discrimination, and the lack of political representation. The AIM’s stand at Wounded Knee was a powerful reminder of the unresolved grievances that have plagued Native American societies for centuries.
The legacy of the Wounded Knee Massacre resonates deeply within Native American communities today. It serves as a somber reminder of the violence inflicted upon their ancestors and the enduring quest for justice and recognition. The massacre and its aftermath have become central to the collective memory and identity of many Native American tribes, symbolizing both a period of profound sorrow and a resilient spirit of survival. Efforts to remember and honor those who perished at Wounded Knee are crucial in acknowledging this dark chapter of history and ensuring that such atrocities are never forgotten. The narrative of Wounded Knee continues to educate and inspire future generations, emphasizing the importance of preserving Native American heritage and advocating for their rights.
- Smithsonian Magazine – The Wounded Knee Massacre
- History.com – Wounded Knee
- PBS – American Experience – Wounded Knee: American Indian Movement
- Encyclopaedia Britannica – Wounded Knee Massacre
- National Park Service – Wounded Knee: The Historic Massacre